SUPPLEMENT: Narrative for ELSY as at 19 May 2009

AARUK

About  Architects  Registration

in the United Kingdom

What
was done and what was meant

Articles
1 to 12 of the AARUK handlist: re-presented as a narrative (19c. to June 2008)
and made available by the author of the handlist ' “ARCHITECT” AS
A  WORKING TITLE .... for use as a
guide to the contents of the AARUK website and Wikipedia links' . (This version
derived through VisWiki as at 19
May 2009. )

For
some of the less frequently asked questions the following could be among useful
words when operating the Find function:

accuracy - continuity - contracts - delegated - denial -
design -

education - impact - nomenclature - profession - protection -

purpose - qualification - reform - regime - warne .

For
current notes and articles about architects' registration in the United Kingdom
see AARUK website or ELSY version.

[link to VisWiki for hyperlinks shown in the
article below]

1.-Architects Registration in the United Kingdom

In the United
Kingdom, the Architects Act 1997
imposes restrictions on the use of the name, style or title
"architect" in connection with a business or a professional practice,
and for that purpose requires a statutory Register of Architects
to be maintained. The Architects
Registration Board constituted under the Act is responsible for Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom and is required to publish the current
version of the Register annually. Every person who is entitled to be registered
under the Act has the right to be entered in the Register. The Act consolidated
previous enactments originating with the Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931 as amended by the Architects Registration Act 1938.
It applies to England, Wales, Scotland
and Northern Ireland.

Section 2 of the Act
prescribes that the Board shall appoint and regulate the functions ascribed to
the Registrar. The Act refers to the Registrar by the masculine pronoun
in the singular, but by the usual rules of statutory
interpretation, this is not limited to an individual male
person.

An amendment
under the European
Communities Act 1972 came into force on 20 June 2008.

The recurring controversy
about whether statutory protection of title serves useful purposes has been
intensified by the legislative impact of the EU Directive on Unfair
Commercial Practices implemented in May 2008 by two Statutory
Instruments under the European Communities Act 1972, namely No
1276 (Trade Descriptions)
and No 1277 (Consumer Protection).

For the purposes of the Legislative
and Regulatory Reform Act 2006, "regulatory function"
is defined in subsection 32(2).

Use of the title
"architect"

Under subsection 20(1) of the
Architects Act 1997,
a person in the United Kingdom
may only practise or carry on business under any name, style or title
containing the word "architect" if
registered. There is no restriction on its use in any other circumstance. The
words in the current Act follow those of the 1938 Architects Registration Act
under which it was decided that the use of the suffix "FRIBA" in
business notepaper constituted an infringement.

By subsection 20(3) corporate
bodies, firms or partnerships can carry on business under a name, style or
title containing the word "architect" provided that (in broad terms)
the architectural business is run by a registered person. However the statutory
registration Board may (by rules made under subsection 20(4) – see
General Rules, Rule 25) effectively limit the application of subsection 20(3)
to those corporate bodies firms or partnerships who have supplied information
necessary for determining whether the architectural business is run by a
registered person.

The rule-making power under
subsection 20(4) appears to be limited to prescribing particular information to
be provided to the Board viz. "such information necessary for statutory
registration determining whether [subsection 20(3)] applies". The subsection
makes no provision for levying any fee.

Background to legislation

Up to the 1990s

Opinions had been divided for
well over a century about the merits of statutory registration of architects in
the United Kingdom.
The result was that Parliament, as the legislator and guided by the government
of the day, has had to maintain a state of benevolent neutrality among the
holders of these contending views, consistent with more general public policies
for business competition, employment, professional education and so on. In
relation to statutory protection of title, three aspects of the field in which
architects practise invite examination. In summary:

·
The design
quality of the built environment:
this is essentially a cultural concern which was and remains one of the
principal reasons for the formation and continuance of the Royal Institute of
British Architects as a chartered body. It has connotations not only for the United Kingdom
but world wide. It is beyond the ambit of statutory protection of title.

·
The technical
sufficiency of buildings: the public
interest is secured in the United
Kingdom under Building Regulations and other
enactments. This too is beyond the statutory protection of the title
"architect".

·
The business
of architectural practice: contracts
of engagement for professional services are always between a business entity
(whether individual, firm, partnership, or company) and the client, and are
governed by the general law, including consumer protection legislation where applicable.
Protection of the title ‘architect’ for business entities is of no
practical relevance for securing the performance of architectural services.

In the light of experience
since the inception of the Register under the 1931 Act, and more particularly
under the Architects Registration Board’s regime from 1997, the recurring
question has been whether protection of title serves useful purposes in respect
of the three aspects mentioned above. The question of obsolescence has been
further intensified by the EU
Unfair Commercial Practices Directive, effective from 2007.

Statutory registration had
its origin within the architectural profession in the latter part of the
nineteenth century. It was then (as now) a matter of controversy. However, by
1905 the RIBA
had established a policy to secure satisfactory training of architects by
statutory means.

The basis of the policy (on
registration) had always been that the profession was governed by voluntary
associations of practising architects and that the profession would retain
control of registration. This was reflected in the composition of the
registration body (the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom - ARCUK)
established by the 1931 Act. Shortly after, in the book published on occasion
of the Institute's centenary celebration in 1934 , in the concluding paragraphs
of the chapter on statutory registration., Harry Barnes FRIBA., Chairman of the
Registration Committee, wrote -

"
... I do not conceive the purpose of the Registration Act to be that of
protecting the Architectural profession. The interests of the Profession are of
course legitimate but are best served by the Architectural Associations in
which some 80 per cent of those practising architecture are to be found.

"The
object of the Registration Act is to ensure to the public that the architects
they employ possess capacity and character.

"Under
the purview of the Board of
Architectural Education no one will enjoy the title of 'Registered
Architect' without giving evidence of his capacity, and under
that of the Discipline Committee no one will retain the title whose character
has been weighed in the balance and found wanting.

"The
Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom can never, therefore,
on this view be a rival of any Architectural Association and least of all of
the Royal
Institute of British Architects.

"The
Architects' Registration Council stands at the gateway of the realm of
Architectural practice, but within that realm the affairs of the Architect are
best administered by those voluntary Associations to which he has allied
himself and over the actions of which he has complete control."

After more than half a century
times have changed and a regime of quite another kind has been installed under
the 1997 Act.

From the 1990s

By the 1990s it was almost
universally accepted that the time had come to bring the statutory Architects'
Registration Council as it then was to an end. Opinion within the profession
was divided among those who held that statutory registration should be
discontinued altogether and those who held that the registration body should be
reconstituted.

In the event the body was
reconstituted as the Architects Registration Board (1996/1997 Acts). But it was
only after the event that many in the profession came to appreciate the effect
of the new requirement that the majority of the Board should be non-architects
and appointed by the government, as the following quotation shows:

"Crucially,
professional control of the Register was taken away by the government's
decision which was realised in the 1996/97 Act. This had not been generally
expected by those of the membership who before then had been in favour of
continuing protection of the title 'architect'. The
significance and effect of the change is now becoming more widely understood."
(Report of the Royal
Institute of British Architects Council's Task Group on the Architects
Registration Board, September 2004.)

Statutory Registration – chronology of key events

1834 - Royal
Institute of British Architects granted its Royal
Charter.

1884 - Society of Architects
formed, after a campaign by a group of ARIBA to be allowed to vote on RIBA
affairs had been resisted by FRIBA.

1887 - Architects and Engineers Registration Act Committee
formed as an independent committee to promote a bill for registration of
architects, engineers and surveyors. The bill was withdrawn after chief bodies
representing engineers petitioned against it.

1889 & 1891 - Architects Registration Bill Committee put forward
bills for registration of architects, which were strongly supported by the Society
of Architects but opposed by an independent group of prominent
architects and artists.

1892 - Papers published, defining the profession of architecture:

Norman Shaw and T G Jackson
(eds.) "Architecture, A Profession or an Art".

William H White "The Architect and his artists, an essay to
assist the public in considering the question is architecture a profession or
an art".

1902 - Architects Registration Bill Committee amalgamated
with the Society of Architects as a joint Registration Committee.

1905 - RIBA Education Policy was adopted for statutory
powers to secure satisfactory training for architects by way of registration of
title, by and through the RIBA.

1908 - RIBA Licentiate Class formed, for architects who
could show evidence of competence, without exams. On closure in 1913, over 2000
had been accepted.

1924-1959 - RIBA Standing Registration Committee.

1925 - Amalgamation of RIBA and Society
of Architects: most of the Society of Architects
members transferred to Licentiate class, which was reopened.

1927 - RIBA Registration Committee has draft bill introduced
in Parliament, but opposed by the Incorporated
Association of Architects and Surveyors and the Faculty of
Architects and Surveyors.

1931 - Bill recast and enacted as the Architects
(Registration) Act 1931, enabling the Register of Architects
to be established under a statutory body called the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK). The Council
was to be made up of representatives of all architectural bodies in the United
Kingdom in proportion to the numbers of their memberships on the
Register, and representatives from government departments and related
professional bodies. Under ARCUK, the RIBA system of exams etc. was accepted
for registration. (The provisions of the Act constituting the Board of
Architectural Education were repealed when ARCUK was
reconstituted as ARB in 1996/7.)

1938 - The Architects Registration Act, 1938 changed the
protected title from "Registered Architect" to "Architect".

1992 - Government, in response to a request from ARCUK,
commissioned review of the Architects Registration Acts by an independent
assessor (John Warne).

1993 - Warne Report
published - principal recommendation: abolition of protection of title
"architect" and disbanding of ARCUK. RIBA Council initially supported
this recommendation, but this was resisted by the RIBA membership. As a result
RIBA campaigned for the retention of protection of title with a
"stream-lined" registration board.

1996 - Part III of Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996, among other
things, reconstituted the registration body as the Architects Registration
Board (ARB).

1997 - Architects Act 1997, a consolidating act, brought
together the provisions of Part III of the 1996 Act and previous registration
legislation. The Architects Registration Board then established with a majority
of appointed lay members and a minority of elected Architect members.

2008 - Amendments
made in June 2008 by Statutory Instrument
established rules for the recognition of professional qualifications enabling
migrants from the European Economic Area
or Switzerland
to register as architects in the United Kingdom. It also set out provisions for
facilitating temporary and occasional professional services cross-border.

The present legislation

Summary of legislative history

The following analysis of the
operative and other parts of the Architects Act 1997 as it was before the amendment
of June 2008 pays attention to details which sometimes go
unnoticed.

The Act is fairly short. That
is partly due to its conciseness, but this quality makes it all the more
necessary to remember that the Act must be read as a whole to ascertain the
meaning and effect of its various parts. Care is needed not to read into it
what is not there (whatever conventional wisdom may have supposed or desired),
and not to fail to notice what actually is there. In particular, like many such
Acts, it can be better understood by looking at its beginning (Arrangement of
Sections and long title) and its end (derivations), as well as the operative
part in between.

Its long title is "An
Act to consolidate the enactments relating to architects". The Table of
Derivations printed at the end lists the enactments which it consolidated; and
Schedule 3 lists the originating and two amending Acts which it repealed,
namely: the Architects (Registration) Act 1931, the Architects Registration Act
1938 and parts of the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996.

The unbroken continuity of
these enactments is shown by paragraph 19(2)(a) of Schedule 2:

"the
Council" means the Architects Registration Council of the United Kingdom
established under the 1931 Act, which was renamed as the Board by section
118(1) of the 1996 Act.

The changes made by the 1996
Act to the originating Act as amended can be deduced from the Table of
Derivations. This also shows that, for the purpose of the consolidation,
certain definitions were inserted in the "Interpretation" section.
These included one to make clear that where there is a reference to
"unacceptable professional conduct", it has the same meaning as it
has in section 14 (not vice versa). In subsection 14(1) the phrase is expanded
as: "conduct which falls short of the standard required of a registered
person".

The "burdens" and "choices"

The scheme of the
consolidation Act of 1997 is identical with that of the originating Act of
1931, as amended. It is as follows:

It
operates by imposing (under Part IV) one kind of burden, backed by threat of
penal sanction, on persons carrying on business in the United
Kingdom generally, but at the same time giving to one particular
group of persons a statutory right to choose instead to submit to another kind
of burden, and to another group of persons the statutory right to choose to
submit to a third kind of burden.

Here, the first is described
as the "general burden"; the other two as the "voluntary
burdens"; and the freedom to choose the "statutory choices".

The general burden is a prohibition
imposed on all persons, firms, partnerships and bodies corporate carrying on
business in the United Kingdom,
including architects and Chartered Architects.
The prohibition is against practising or carrying on business under the title
of "architect", with
two exceptions, viz.:

·
In the case of an
individual, s/he has opted for one of the voluntary burdens and is registered
or enrolled under the Act.

·
In the case of a
business entity (body corporate, firm or partnership) it has opted for the
other of the voluntary burdens, in that its business so far as it relates to
architecture satisfies the statutory requirement to be under the control,
management and supervision of a registered person.

Here, the first of these is
described as a "practice volunteer", and the second as a
"business volunteer".

The statutory choice is
exercisable:

·
In the case of a
practice volunteer, by applying for registration in the Register
of Architects and paying the annual retention fee (under
sections 4 to 11), or by enrolling in the statutory list of visiting EEA
architects (under section 12).

·
In the case of a
business volunteer, by complying with the control, management and supervision
requirements (of subsection 20(3)).

The voluntary burdens which
result from the exercise of the statutory choice are as follows:

·
In the case of a
registered person, to submit to the regime imposed on registered persons under
sections 4 to 11 of Part II (payment of fees and satisfying requirements about
qualifications and competence) and Part III – Discipline.

·
In the case of a
person enrolled in the list of visiting EEA architects, to submit to the regime
of section 12 and of Part III – Discipline.

·
In the case of a
business volunteer, to submit to the regime for control, management and
supervision imposed by subsection 20(3) and be liable to supply the Board with
information showing compliance.

In consequence:

·
any person or
business entity is free to supply services of the same kind as a registered
person, but may only use the title "architect" in
this connection subject to one of the voluntary burdens; and

·
a Chartered
Architect may only use this title in the course of professional
practice if s/he has opted to submit to one of the voluntary burdens, normally
as a registered person.

Side-effects

A side-effect of the Act is
the imposition of burdens on third parties under Part II, namely, Schools
of Architecture, but the effect of the changes made by the 1996
Act is that Schools of Architecture have disappeared from the legislation
without trace. The result has been a certain amount of wrangling between the
Schools, the ARB and the RIBA which is the principal professional body, whose
concerns inevitably include architectural education.

Another side-effect has been
a claim by the ARB to be able to impose on registered persons certain
requirements about Professional Indemnity Insurance.

The Board and its duties

The membership of the Board
is the result of one of the changes made by the 1996 Act to the registration
body's previous constitution when its name had been the Architects'
Registration Council of the United
Kingdom. The Act abolished the Board of
Architectural Education, renamed the Council as the Board, and
made this Board consist predominantly of persons appointed by the Privy
Council.

Subsection 3(4) states
"The Board shall publish the current version of the Register
annually...". Provisions of Part II of the Act prescribe how the Register
shall be kept up to date, and who shall be entitled to be registered; other
provisions of Parts II and III prescribe for the Board the circumstances,
events or conditions when a person's name shall be removed from the Register;
and other provisions prescribe for the Board certain ancillary, or derivative
and secondary, duties in connection with the Board's primary responsibility for
the maintenance and regular publication of the Register of Architects.

Apart from officers, employees
and agents of the Board, the Act creates no duties or obligations towards the
Board which fall on any one else at all; and nothing in the Act itself creates
any obligation which an architect owes to the Board.

Not delegated

Section 20 of the Architects Act
1997 mentions "architecture" (subsection (3)(b)) and the
"services" of a person enrolled under the Act (subsection (5)). These
are not defined by the Act, and it is quite obvious that Parliament
has not delegated to the Board the power to define them. In practice, as
technology and the building process continue to evolve new specialisms, the
concept of architecture can be seen as becoming ever more fluid, extensive and
comprehensive, and at the same time becoming narrower while ever more ancillary
specialities are identified.

The Board's Professional
Conduct Committee

Sanctions are available to
the Board under Part III of the Act against any person on the register who is
found guilty under section 15 of unacceptable professional conduct or serious
professional incompetence, or else has been convicted with a criminal offence
which has relevance to fitness to practise.

Although a criminal
conviction is an objective criterion, no statutory definition is given that
defines the level of professional conduct or incompetence that will attract a
sanction, judgment in the matter being given to the Board's Professional
Conduct Committee, subject to commonsense, reason and judicial review.

The PCC is constituted under
the Act, Schedule 1 Part II, as amended. The Committee includes members of the
Board, both elected and appointed, as well as persons appointed by the Board
and nominees of the President of the Law Society. A bare quorum of the
Committee meets for a disciplinary hearing, comprising a nominee of the
President of the Law Society (invariably a solicitor), a person
from the Register and another not on the Register. PCC members are paid for
their service.

Categorisation

The Architects
Registration Board is admittedly not a professional body or society
in the sense explained in Wikipedia article "British
Professional Bodies". The question whether or not it is a
"regulatory agency"
was publicly considered in 2003. The June 2003 issue of the RIBA Journal
included the following:

"The
words 'regulator' and 'regulation' are not used in the Act and that status is
not conferred upon the Board. It could be argued that the Board's assumption of
this role is adverse to the public interest... A contrary proposition to the
Board's claim is that an essential characteristic of a regulatory body in this
context is to have jurisdiction or control over particular functions or
activities in the supply of goods or services... whether or not the regulatory
method is in conjunction with a system of certificating or licensing (such as
applies to solicitors or places of entertainment)... The Board's claim to
regulatory status appears to be the result of want of understanding how it can
usefully go about fulfilling the services that have been assigned to it by
statute for the public benefit..."

In November 2003 the Architects Registration
Board published a summary of a barrister's opinion which
included the following:

"The
Board as 'Regulator'. It has been suggested that the Board is not a 'regulator'
of the architects’ profession... The precise generic description that any
individual chooses to give to the collection of statutory duties imposed upon,
and the powers available to, the Board under the 1997 Act is in any event
irrelevant for the purposes of the questions asked," [by the Board when obtaining this information for its
own use] "for they largely involve issues of statutory interpretation
which require the legislation to be construed and not given epithets."

Use of "Chartered
Practice"

The Royal
Institute of British Architects, which is a professional body
(see Wikipedia category list British
Professional Bodies), operates a voluntary "Chartered
Practice" scheme. The Institute's website explains that the scheme
requires all architectural work to be under the supervision of a Chartered
Architect, and that the Privy Council has
approved amendments to the RIBA Charter and Byelaws which (from July 2007)
entitles practices which qualify to use the title "Chartered
Practice" (See the RIBA Charter, Article 4.7).

Qualification for registration

The standard of qualification
is not equal for all persons applying to be included in the Register
of Architects.

The Registrar is bound, under
section 4 of the Architects Act, to register any person who applies for
registration if that person has "such qualifications and has gained such
practical experience as may be prescribed".

An alternative route to
registration is to satisfy the Board that an equivalent standard of competence
has been achieved. A matrix can be applied as follows:

Qualifications

Practical experience

RIBA Part III

Obtained in UK

Obtained in UK

Required

Obtained in UK

Obtained in other EU

Not required

Obtained in other EU

Obtained in UK

Not required

Obtained in other EU

Obtained in other EU

Not required

The disparity arises from the European Directive
on Mutual Recognition of Qualifications in Architecture 85/384/EC. (Go to
Article 4 of the main text for the required duration of training. The original
Directive has been updated.) It is clearly stated in that Directive that
"the total length of education and training shall consist of a minimum of
either four years of full-time studies at a university or comparable
educational establishment or at least six years of study at a university or
comparable educational establishment of which at least three must be full
time".

As this is a minimum
requirement there is nothing to stop a country applying higher standards to
those obtaining qualifications and experience within its own jurisdiction.
However it is widely held (and expressed in the report of the late Michael
Highton to the RIBA Council) that any challenge to this disparity is likely to
succeed on the grounds of irrationality. The report stated:

"In
our view it is only a matter of time before a UK student, who has been denied
registration on the grounds that he or she has not passed the Part 3
examination, yet who has been educated in the UK and achieved two years
practical experience in the UK, successfully challenges such a decision on the
basis that it is irrational to require a UK based student to possess a higher
level of qualification and experience than is required of a non-UK based
student or architect."

If the Architects
Registration Board reduced the registration requirement to four years full-time
study, there is no reason why the RIBA should lower its entry standard.

In the United Kingdom, the Architects Act
1997 imposes restrictions on the use of the name, style or title
&quotarchitect" in connection with a business or a professional
practice, and for that purpose requires a statutory Register of Architects to
be maintained.

“Architects Registration in the United Kingdom” is strongly
related to:

Register of Architects Society of
Architects (1884-1925) Architects Registration
Board Royal
Institute of British Architects Board of
Architectural Education Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom Architect
Directive
2005/29/EC The Unfair Commercial Practices Directive Directive
(European Union) RIBA Privy council
United
Kingdom ARCUK
Architecture
and Surveying Institute Incorporated
Association of Architects and Surveyors Schools
of Architecture, Architects (Registration) Act, 1931 William H.
White Warne Report John Alfred
Gotch Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 Architects
Act 1997 Thomas Graham Jackson
Richard
Norman Shaw Regulator Statutory
interpretation Pronoun Royal Charter
Solicitor
Parliament of the
United Kingdom

~~

end of article 1#

[link to VisWiki
for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

2.-Warne Report

The Warne Report was
published by the United Kingdom Government in 1993. It was referred to in a
government consultation paper on Reform of
Architects Registration dated 19 July 1994. Eventually, certain
changes to the Architects Registration Acts were enacted in 1996 which now have
effect under the Architects Act 1997.

Overview

The Warne Report had been
drawn up by (Ernest) John (David) Warne, CB. He had been secretary to the Institute
of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1982 to 1990.
After graduating BA in the University of London
he had entered the Civil Service,
and after a series of promotions and transfers (detailed in Who's
Who) he had become an Under-Secretary in the Department
of Industry, and eventually Deputy Director-General of the Office
of Fair Trading, 1979-1982. Mr Warne summarised the conclusion
of his report as follows:

·
"My main
recommendation is that the protection of title 'architect' should be abolished
and ARCUK
disbanded, I believe that this will help modify some of the outmoded
distinctions and attitudes which inhibit change within the construction
industry. it should also help the efforts being made in the
architectural profession to improve the relevance of education and training to
the business world in which architects must operate. Although the loss of the monopoly
use of the title 'architect' (but not
the term 'chartered architect')
will be unwelcome to many in the profession, I
suggest that time will show that the protection of title has been largely
irrelevant to the standing of the architectural profession or to the public
interest..."

The Warne Report was
published by the United Kingdom Government in 1993. It was referred to in a
government consultation paper on Reform of Architects Registration dated 19
July 1994. Eventually, certain changes to the Architects Registration Acts were
enacted in 1996 which now have effect under the Architects Act 1997.

“Warne Report” is strongly related to:

ARCUK Chartered
architect Reform of
Architects Registration Architects Act 1997
Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom Institute
of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales Public
interest Office of Fair Trading
Department of
Trade and Industry Who's Who Civil service
Profession
Monopoly
Construction
University
of London Architect

~~

end of article 2

[link to VisWiki
for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

3.-Reform of Architects
Registration

"Reform of Architects
Registration" was the title of a UK government consultation paper
dated 19 July 1994 which was issued by the Department of
the Environment. The introduction stated that in October 1993
the Government had announced that the profession and others would be consulted
about measures which could be taken to simplify the then arrangements for the
registration of architects under the Architects
Registration Acts, and that broad agreement on what those
measures would be had been reached with the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK) and the Royal
Institute of British Architects (RIBA). Eventually, Parliament
made certain changes to the Architects Registration Acts which now have effect
under the Architects Act 1997.

The consultation paper went
on to state that the current proposals for reform stemmed from a request from
ARCUK to the the Government in
1992 that the Architects Registration Acts should be reviewed; and that a
review had been carried out by Mr E J D Warne CB, whose report report had been
published by HMSO in 1993.

The consultation paper
mentioned that the Warne Report had
considered the views of architects, architectural bodies and consumers and
"agreed with ARCUK" that there were certain weaknesses of its
structure: and that the reforms being proposed were aimed at overcoming those
weaknesses in a way that would be generally acceptable to the profession and
public alike.

The main objective of the
reforms was stated to be:

to
create a small, focussed and effective registration body which represents the
interests of both the profession and the general public,

and
its purpose would be to

set criteria for admission
to the Register; prevent misuse of the title 'architect';
discipline uprofessional conduct, and set fee levels.

The punctuation
in the document, as reproduced above, seemed to indicate a close connection of
some kind between setting fee levels and professional conduct. But in the event
the setting of fee levels was later abandoned, while, in respect of
professional conduct, statutory powers to inflict fines expressly on a par with
criminal penalties were given to a body which would have persons who are not
themselves members of the profession in the decisive majority, and who would
not be acting under the judicial oath of a judge or a magistrate
in a court of criminal or civil jurisdiction, or pursuant to the consensual
jurisdiction
of an arbitrator,
and would not necessarily have the appropriate skill and knowledge to be able
to act competently and fairly in respect of hazarding an architect's
professional reputation. At a time when the usage "stakeholders"
was becoming more noticeable, a preponderance of political opinion favoured
such an arrangement as a welcome and pioneering development.

Certain issues had been the
background to the Warne Report as
matters were in the 1990s and had always been, namely, issues concerning the
flaws or merits of the case for or against such proposals in theory or in
principle or in relation particularly, on the one hand, to the Register
of Architects, to restrictions on the use of the word
"architect", and to the practice of architecture considered as an art
or as a business or as a means of earning a livelihood; and on the other hand,
to official accountability, juridical norms and the rule of law: see further,
article on Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom - background to legislation.

One of the proposals
mentioned in the consultation document which were later enacted and are now
operative was that ARCUK would remain as a legal entity, but its name would be
changed to "Architects
Registration Board"; and it was stated that although this
change, in itself, would have no impact on the status or role of ARCUK it would
suggest a smaller, tighter body and would mark the alterations to ARCUK's
functions.

Another of the proposals was
that there should be an office of Registrar whose functions would be to
maintain the Register and carry out the instructions of the Board; and it was
stated that the Registrar would be a named appointee of the Board which would
decide whether the Registrar should be an employee or a contractor.

"Reform of Architects
Registration" was the title of a UK government consultation paper
dated 19 July 1994 which was issued by the Department of the Environment.

“Reform of Architects Registration” is strongly related to:

Warne Report Architects Act 1997
Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Architects
Registration Board Register of Architects
Board of
Architectural Education Arbitral tribunal Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom Department of the
Environment UK Government Office
of Public Sector Information Royal
Institute of British Architects Informed consent Magistrate
Punctuation
Jurisdiction
Judge
Architect

~~

end of article 3

[link to VisWiki
for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

4.-Housing Grants,
Construction and Regeneration Act 1996

The Housing Grants,
Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 is an Act of Parliament
of the

United Kingdom. Its long title shows
that it is a piece of omnibus legislation:

An
Act to make provision for grants and other assistance for housing purposes and
about action in relation to unfit housing; to amend the law relating to
construction contracts and architects; to provide grants and other assistance
for regeneration and development and in connection with clearance areas; to
amend the provisions relating to home energy efficiency schemes; to make
provision in connection with the dissolution of urban corporations, housing
action trusts and the Commission for New Towns; and for connected purposes.

Part III of the Act relating
to architects'
registration has been repealed and reenacted as the Architects
Act 1997, under the Parliamentary rules for consolidating Acts.

“Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996” is
strongly related to:

Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom
Long
title Act of Parliament United Kingdom

~~

end of article 4

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5.-Architects Act 1997

The Architects Act 1997
(1997 c. 22) is the consolidating Act
of the Parliament of
the United Kingdom for the keeping and publishing of the
statutory Register of Architects
by the Architects
Registration Board. It has the long title: An
Act to consolidate the enactments relating to architects.

Passage of the consolidating
Bill

The Architects Act 1997
consolidated the originating and amending Acts relating to the registration of
architects, namely the Architects
Acts 1931-1996 (section 125 of the Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996).

The Bill
was introduced to the House of Lords
on 17 December 1996 by the Lord Chancellor,
Lord
Mackay of Clashfern, and given its first reading. It received
its second reading without call for a debate on 20 January 1997 and was passed
to the Joint Committee on Consolidation Bills. On 3 March 1997 it was read for
a third time without debate and passed to the House
of Commons. The Bill was given Royal Assent on 19
March 1997 and came into force on 21 July 1997.

Legislative continuity

The legislative continuity
from the originating Act of 1931 to the consolidating Act of 1997 is shown by
paragraph 19(2)(a) of Schedule 2 in the 1997 Act:

"the
Council" means the Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom
established under the 1931 Act, which was renamed as the Board by section
118(1) of the 1996 Act.

The Architects
Registration Board (ARB) has limited powers to make rules in the
manner prescribed by the Architects Act 1997, but not the power to make
regulations which had previously been ascribed to the registration body when it
was constituted as the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK).

Statutory purpose

The Act embodied previous
legislation consequent upon EU Directives
concerning the mutual recognition of professional qualifications in EU
Member States and other EEA
States, and certain changes which had been made to the previous legislation
after the publication of the Warne Report in
1993.

For the purpose of
ascertaining the duties and functions which the Architects Registration Board
is required to execute and perform under the Architects Act 1997, the
constraints on the Board include the requirements judicially applicable in the
name of administrative law.

In May 2006 ministerial
responsibility for the ARB was transferred from the ODPM to the DCLG (Department
for Communities and Local Government). The DCLG website shows
that of "four categories" of "non-departmental
public bodies" (NDPBs) the ARB was being classified (at the
end of May 2007) as one of two "public corporations",
the other one being the Audit Commission, a body of entirely different
political and legislative origin, function and capacities, so that the two have
practically nothing in common. The website there briefly described the ARB as:

The
independent statutory regulator of all UK registered architects which has
a dual mandate to protect the consumer and to safeguard the reputation of
architects.

That appears to have been
more a politically advised than a factual statement, in that it lacks congruity
with an ordinary or accurate reading of the legislation enacted by Parliament
(see further information below "Accuracy of Government Information").

Changes: before and after July
1997

The previous legislation had
enabled and required the Register of Architects
to be established, maintained and published; and for that purpose there had
been a Council, called the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK), which had
been established as a body corporate by the originating Act, namely the Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931.

The changes embodied in the consolidating
Act of 1997 had first been enacted in Part III of the Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996. The changes had
been made on the basis of a government consultation document dated 19 July 1994
which the Department of
the Environment had issued with the title "Reform of
Architects Registration". The consultation document had set
out fourteen proposals for reform, stemming from a request from ARCUK to the
Government in 1992 that the Architects Registration Acts should be reviewed;
and stated that a report on the review which had been carried out had been published
by HMSO in 1993. The report had been made by Mr E J D Warne, CB, and is
commonly known as "The Warne Report".

The legislation which
followed carried the proposed purposes into effect only in part. In the
consultation document the purpose of the reformed body was stated to be:
setting criteria for admission to the Register; preventing misuse of the title
"architect";
and the discipline of unprofessional conduct, and the setting of fee levels. To
that end, fourteen proposals had been enumerated. Some were later abandoned;
and others substantially altered, whether in the Bill which was presented to
Parliament or in its passage through Parliament, including:

·
that the reformed
Board would be given statutory authority to make regulations consistent with
the provisions of the legislation governing architects registration;

·
that the reformed
Board would publicise a statement of the criteria for disciplinary offences;
and

·
that in
disciplinary cases, there would be a range of non-monetary penalties, and
hearings would be before a small statutory committee composed of both
architects and non-architects, with a right to appeal to the full Board.

Proposals mentioned in the
consultation document which were later enacted and are now operative were:

·
that ARCUK would
remain as a legal entity, but, with no impact on its role or status, the name
would be changed to "Architects
Registration Board" (ARB);

·
that there should
be an office of Registrar whose functions would be to maintain the Register and
carry out the instructions of the Board;

·
that the Board
would be made up of 8 lay members appointed by the Government, and 7 architects
elected by registered architects; and

·
that the Board of
Architectural Education would be abolished, by reason of it
being an unwieldy body which would be unnecessary for fulfilling the functions
of the reformed Registration Board.

The Table of Derivations, set
out at the end of the Act after Schedule 3, by showing the changes which had
been made by the 1996 Act to the originating Act of 1931 (as it had by then
been amended by the 1938 Act and other legislation), distinguishes them from
the provisions which were in the legislation before the 1996 Act, and so were
operative in the time of ARCUK and have remained operative from 21 July 1997,
when the reconstituting changes took effect.

Amendments made in June 2008 by Statutory Instrument
established rules for the recognition of professional qualifications enabling
migrants from the European Economic Area
or Switzerland
to register as architects in the United Kingdom. It also set out
provisions for facilitating temporary and occasional professional services
cross-border.

Definitions

The Table of Derivations also
shows that certain definitions which were inserted for the purpose of the
consolidation included one to make clear that where there is a reference to
"unacceptable professional conduct", it has the same meaning as it
has in section 14 (not vice versa): in section 14(1) the phrase is
expanded as "conduct which falls short of the standard required of a
registered person".

Interpretation

Legislative context of Architects Registration

Under the legislation, the
registration body has been a statutory corporation from its inception, first as
a Council of numerous persons nominated mainly by professional bodies under the
1931 Act, and, from July 1997, as a Board of fifteen persons, of which the
majority has been appointed by the Privy Council in
the manner prescribed by paragraph 3(1) of Schedule 1 of the Act, that is:

...after
consultation with the Secretary of State and such other persons or bodies as
the Privy Council thinks fit, to represent the interests of users of
architectural services and the general public,

Members of the general public
clearly have an interest to the extent that the legislation makes it a criminal
offence to infringe the restrictions placed upon the freedom of individuals
(including qualified architects), and of firms and partnerships, and companies
and corporations of all kinds, to use the word "architect".

From the 1880s, it has been a
moot point whether the effect of such registration and protection of the title
"architect" would be to place an undue burden on the profession for
too little benefit for the public, or to confer an unfair advantage on the
profession, or one section of it, as against competitors. But in more recent
decades the statutory Register of Architects
and the protection of the title "architect" under
the legislation has been affected by the obligation of the Government to secure
compliance with obligations in connection with membership of the European
Union and the European Economic Area.
This has brought in its train questions about the criteria and standards for
deciding upon equivalence of professional qualifications in EU and EEA
countries, and the legitimate expectations of those who have qualified.

Accuracy of UK
Government information about Architects Registration

In May 2006 the then Prime
Minister (Mr Blair) arranged
for ministerial responsibility for the Architects Registration Board to be
transferred from the then Office of
the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) to a newly formed Department
which was to be called "Communities
and Local Government" (DCLG) and to be headed by a Secretary
of State (Ruth Kelly), to whom
the Prime Minister addressed a
letter setting out what was required. This Department's official website
published the Prime Minster's letter and stated its vision to be of
"prosperous and cohesive communities, offering a safe, healthy and
sustainable environment for all".

The website also had a
page for describing the Architects
Registration Board where it offered a summary of the effect of
the legislation, but which had a thread of inaccuracy in three out of four
sentences, namely:

·
stating that ARB
"succeeded" ARCUK, when the legislation had expressly stated that it
was the same body but with another name as from July 1997 (See above:
Continuity of Legislation);

·
stating that it
was established to guarantee the professional competence of architects to
consumers, when there is nothing in the legislation or otherwise giving ARB
either the legal powers or the funds to honour any such guarantee; and

·
that all
architects must be registered by ARB in order to practise legally in the United
Kingdom, when under the legislation (see related articles cited below) an
architect, or any other person, is free to perform or supply the services of an
architect subject only to the restrictions on the use of the vernacular word
"architect"
contained in the legislation first enacted by Parliament in the 1938
Act.

From 21 July 1997, the
governing Act for the keeping and publication of the statutory Register of
Architects by the Architects Registration Board has been the Architects Act
1997 with the long title:

“Architects Act 1997” is strongly related to:

Architects
Registration Board Register
of Architects Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Communities and
Local Government Warne Report Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 Reform
of Architects Registration Architect European
Economic Area Board of
Architectural Education Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom Non-Departmental
Public Body Directive (European
Union) Department of the
Environment Member State of
the European Union Privy council Long title
Ruth
Kelly Administrative law
Secretary
of State Tony Blair European Union

~~

end of article 5#

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6.-Architects Act 1997 : amendment of June 2008
under the European Communities Act 1972

The Architects
Act was amended in 2008 by a statutory instrument
made by a minister of the United
Kingdom government under the European
Communities Act 1972. This was the Architects (Recognition of
European Qualifications etc and Saving and Transitional Provision) Regulations
2008, which came into force on 20 June 2008. An Explanatory Memorandum was
issued with the Regulations and a fuller Explanatory Memorandum presented to
Parliament. The Architects Act 1997 had resulted from the policy of allowing
certain restrictions to apply (for well over 60 years, in the United Kingdom)
to the use of the simple word "architect" in
connection with a statutory Register of Architects
operated under Westminster primary legislation by which the executant body was
renamed as the Architects
Registration Board from 1997 (previously the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom). The amendment
(under the European Communities Act 1972) has introduced pages of complicated
text to a piece of legislation which was otherwise tolerably trim, neat and
comprehensible in its consolidated form in the 1997 Act. But the amendment has
been made pursuant to a European Directive made in 2005 and the treaty obligations
binding upon the United
Kingdom and other states of the European
Union, and in that respect an amendment under the European Directive was
inevitable.

Non-departmental public body

The Architects
Registration Board has been assigned the function of the
"competent authority" which has to be designated by every European
Union state. It has been classed as a "non-departmental
public body" in the language being used by government
departments. The majority of the Board is appointed by one such government
department under the provisions of the Architects Act 1997.

Impact

In connection with architects
registration in the United Kingdom it is likely that as a result of the
amendment of 2008 there will be a commensurate need to expand the human and
other resources employed for giving effect to the additional activity
prescribed for the Architects Registration Board to perform; and that the
impact upon the annual fee which the Act enables the Board to demand is
unlikely to be favourable to architects in the United Kingdom who, by
application or retention, choose to become registrants on what, by the
amendment, has become "Part 1" of the Register. The general effect on
teaching and practice, or on the inter-disciplinary process in the service of
the built environment, is uncertain. Independent observers may consider (as had
the author of the Warne Report, concerning the reform of architects
registration which preceded the amending legislation of 1996) that the public
is best served by means of statutory regulations of universal application (such
as Building Regulations)
on the one hand and arrangements free from the taint of monopoly
on the other (for which see the article on the Warne Report and
the legislative changes concerning trade descriptions and consumer protection,
introduced in May 2008, that are referred to in the article on Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom).

[ Wikipedia References

^
An unofficial copy of the amended text of the Act may be found on RIBApedia

^
S.I. 2008 No.
1331

^
Directive
2005/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council

Categories: Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom | United
Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1997 | Administrative law
| Architectural
education ]

~~

end of article 6#

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for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

7.- Register of Architects
(legislation 1931-1997)

From 1932 there has been a
statutory Register of Architects under legislation of the United Kingdom
Parliament originally enacted in 1931. The originating
Act contained ancillary provisions for entering an
architect’s name in the register and removing a name from it which later
legislation has amended. The 1931 Act gave it the name “the Register of
Registered Architects”, but by an Act of 1938 the name was changed to
“the Register of Architects”.

Entry in the Register has
always been upon voluntary application but subject to payment of an annual
retention fee, and the legislation has always required the registration body to
publish the current version of the Register annually.

The setting up of the
Register had been the result of many years of negotiation by the Royal
Institute of British Architects (RIBA), the leading professional
society for practising architects in the
United Kingdom, which had been incorporated by charter granted by William IV
in 1837.

Maintenance of the Register
of Architects is the responsibility of a body corporate which, from July 1997,
has the statutory name "Architects
Registration Board". This body is regarded as a non-departmental
public body by the United Kingdom Government and it is liable to
judicial review in the Administrative
Court of the High Court
in England.

Consultation on reform

The identity of he Register
of Architects itself has continued unchanged, but under later primary
legislation (of 1996/1997) some of the administrative or ancillary provisions
were abolished, and some were altered having regard, among other things, to the
use of data in electronic form in connection with maintenance of the Register
and its annual publication. This happened after the Department of
the Environment had issued a consultation document with the
title “Reform of
Architects Registration” in 1994, followed by the
government introducing an amending bill in Parliament in 1996.

One of the alterations was
that the name which had been given by the originating Act of 1931 to the body
constituted as the proprietor and publisher of the Register was changed from
the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK) to the Architects
Registration Board (ARB), with effect from 21 July 1997.

Legislation

As an aid to statutory
interpretation, the following summarises the series of enactments governing the
Register from 1931 to 1997. The legislation at the time of the passing of the
Architects Act 1997 (19 March) had been the Architects Registration Acts 1931
to 1996, namely,

·
the Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931;

·
the Architects
Registration Act, 1938;

·
Part III of the
Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996, including, by section
125(1), the intricate tracery of amendments, transitional provisions and
savings listed in Parts II and III of Schedule 2.

The legislation at the time
of the passing of the 1996 Act (24 July) had been the Architects Registration
Acts 1931 to 1969.

When the consolidation Act of
1997 which replaced the previous legislation was enacted the name of the
proprietary body with the statutory duty to publish the Register of Architects
was the Architects’ Registration Council of the United Kingdom.
From 21 July 1997 when the 1997 Act took effect, the name of this body has been
the Architects Registration Board, but that change of name did not change the
identity of the Register of Architects itself, which has been in continuous
existence from its inception under the originating Act of 1931.

Amendments to the 1997 Act made in June 2008 by Statutory
Instrument established rules for the recognition of professional
qualifications enabling migrants from the European Economic Area
or Switzerland
to register as architects in the United Kingdom. It also set out
provisions for facilitating temporary and occasional professional services
cross-border.

Further information

See articles listed on the
Categories page for further information about:

·
Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938

·
Architects Act 1997

·
Architects
Registration Board

·
Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom

·
Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom

·
Architectural
education in the United Kingdom (19c-20c)

·
Board of
Architectural Education

·
Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996

·
Reform of
Architects Registration

·
Schools
of Architecture, Architects (Registration) Act, 1931

From 1932 there has been a
statutory Register of Architects under legislation of the United Kingdom
Parliament originally enacted in 1931. The originating Act contained ancillary
provisions for entering an architect’s name in the register and removing
a name from it which later legislation has amended.

“Register of Architects” is strongly related to:

Reform of
Architects Registration Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Architects
Registration Board Schools
of Architecture, Architects (Registration) Act, 1931 Architectural
education in the United Kingdom (19c-20c) Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 Board
of Architectural Education Architects Act 1997
Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom William IV Department
of the Environment Royal
Institute of British Architects Architect

~~

end of article 7#

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for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

8.-Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938

The Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 is
the statutory citation for three Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament, namely:

·
The Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931;

·
The Architects
(Registration) Act, 1934; and

·
The Architects
Registration Act, 1938.

These Acts have been amended
and have been replaced as amended by the Architects Act 1997,
with effect from 21 July 1997.

From ARCUK in 1931 to ARB in
1997

Extent and citation of the Acts

By subsection 18(1), the
originating Act of 1931 was to come into operation on 1 January 1932, save as
otherwise provided in the Act; and by subsection 18(2), it was to extend to Northern
Ireland only if an Order in Council
was made to that effect. On the 1938 Act coming into force, the 1931 Act was to
be construed as one with the Architects (Registration) Act, 1934 and the
Architects Registration Act, 1938; those three Acts could be cited together as
the Architects (Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938; and in the 1938 Act the
expression "principal Act" meant the Architects (Registration) Act,
1931.

Formation and duties of ARCUK

The Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938
required the Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK)
("the Council") to set up, maintain and publish annually a register,
in the manner prescribed by the Acts.

By subsection 3(1) of the
1931 Act the Council was to be a body corporate by the name of the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom, and it was expressed
to be established for the purposes of the Act.

Architects Act 1997

The governing Act for the
keeping and publication of the Register in the prescribed manner is now the Architects
Act 1997. Its long title is:

An
Act to consolidate the enactments relating to architects.

Amendments which had been
made by Part III of the Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 included (subsection
118(1)) renaming the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK) as the Architects
Registration Board (ARB). The 1996 Act also enacted the
abolition of the statutory Board of
Architectural Education (subsection 118(2)).

The effect of the 1996 Act
was to repeal part of the Architects (Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 as then
amended, and to amend and add to other parts. Those Acts, as amended by the
1996 Act, were then repealed by the consolidation
Act of 1997, which thereafter became the governing Act.

Subsection 13(1) of the
Architects (Registration) Act, 1931 had conferred on the Council (ARCUK) a
limited power to make regulations to prescribe anything which by the Act was
specifically required or authorised to be prescribed (such as, the annual
retention fee or regulating meetings and procedure of the Council) and
"generally for carrying out or facilitating the purposes of the Act".
But under subsection 13(2) any such regulations would have no force or validity
unless previously approved by the Privy Council in
the manner prescribed by section 13.

The Board now has limited
powers under the Architects Act 1997 to make rules in the manner
prescribed by the Act, but not to make regulations. This
has not stopped the Board using the word "regulation" in ways which
appear to be at some variance with the contemporary usage of Parliament as the legislator,
or with the usage of persons or bodies practising in the regulatory field as
commonly understood, such as: "regulation of the use of title" and
"regulation of all aspects relating to the conduct and discipline of
architects". These are certainly more than overstatements of the very
limited powers for which the Board was actually reconstituted under the
1996/1997 legislation, which gave the Board no power over architects or the
supply of architectural services as such, and where the restraint on the use of
title is in fact prescribed by the legislation and not delegated to the Board,
whose main function under the Architects Act 1997 is no more than to maintain
and publish the Register of Architects
in the manner prescribed by the Act, its other functions being ancillary to that
function, which in turn is for the purpose of enabling prosecutors
and courts
to ascertain whether a person is liable to conviction for infringement of the
restriction on the use of "architect".

EU Directives and qualifications

It can be inferred that some
risk of conceptual confusion about regulation has resulted from an apparent
need to let the native language accommodate terms derived from the habitual
idiom of Directives and other documents issued by the European
Union, formerly known as the European Economic
Community, including Directive 85/384/EEC, referred to in the
Architects Act 1997 in connection with the recognition of qualifications
acquired in an EEA State (European Economic Area).

The legitimate purposes of
the European Union
include

"the
abolition, as between Member States, of obstacles to the free movement of
persons and services".

This has been regularly
recited in EU Directives, such as 2005/36/EC of 7 September 2005 "on
recognition of professional qualifications". That abolishing of obstacles
has brought in its train a series of Directives by which the EEC/EC/EU had
been carrying out its functions vis-à-vis
Member States in connection with the mutual recognition of the qualifications
of architects and certain other professions. It was pursuant to those
Directives that a person from one Member State (or certain other states)
wishing to practise in another might be required to produce a certificate of
qualification; and that in the United Kingdom, the Architects Registration
Board has been acting as the "Competent Authority" in respect of
architects.

Revised
arrangements were introduced in
June 2008, pursuant to EU Directive 2005/36/EC. This Directive defines
"competent authority" among other things as a body empowered by a
Member State specifically to receive the applications and to take the decisions
referred to in the Directive; and "regulated profession" as a
professional activity one of the modes of pursuit of which is subject by virtue
of legislative provision to the possession of specific professional
qualifications.

From grant, 1932 to denial of
right, 1942

The statutory Register of Architects

By subsection 3(3) of the
originating Act of 1931 the statutory register was to be called the Register of
Registered Architects. This was changed to the Register of Architects
by subsection 3(3) of the 1938 Act, with effect from 1 August 1940. The name
the Register of Architects has continued unchanged, and remains so under the
Architects Act 1997.

"...take and use..."

The long title
of the 1931 Act was:

An
Act to provide for the Registration of architects and for purposes connected
therewith.

and under section 10 persons
who were entitled to apply for registration could thereby claim "to take
and use the name or title 'Registered Architect'", as a statutory right,
with effect from 1932.

Penal restriction

That was radically altered by
the 1938 Act, as its long title
indicates:

An
Act to restrict the use of the name Architect to Registered Architects and to
extend the time within which practising architects may apply for registration.

Among other things, by
section 1 of the 1938 Act, with effect from 1 August 1940, section 10 of the
1931 Act would be replaced by subsection 1(1) of the 1938 Act. The effect of
this was that, instead of allowing qualified persons to use a statutory title
if they chose to apply for it, restrictions on the use of the vernacular word
"architect" were introduced which were to apply to all persons, including
fully qualified practising members of the Royal
Institute of British Architects or other chartered bodies, or
societies or associations, of architects; and this innovation was imposed under
threat of penalty on prosecution in the Magistrates Courts.

Recommended abolition

When the Warne
Report was published in 1993, it was found that its principal
recommendation was abolition of protection of the title "architect"
and the disbanding of ARCUK. Instead, the Council has been reconstituted and
renamed as the Architects
Registration Board and now operates under the Architects Act
1997.

The Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 is
the statutory citation for three Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament, namely:

“Architects (Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938” is strongly
related to:

Long title Register of Architects
Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom Architects
Registration Board European Union Magistrates
Courts Warne Report Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 Board
of Architectural Education Architects Act 1997
EC
Vis-à-vis
Repeal
Rule
Order-in-Council
Privy
council Legislator Royal
Institute of British Architects European Economic Area
Regulation
Prosecutor
European
Community Court Northern
Ireland

~~

end of article 8#

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9.-Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom

Under an Act passed by the UK
Parliament in 1931, there was established an Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK), referred to in the Act
as "the Council". The constitution of the Council was prescribed by
the First Schedule to the Act. The Act made the Council a body corporate by the
name Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom. It was
habitually referred to colloquially by the acronym ARCUK.

When the Warne
Report was published in 1993, it was found that its principal
recommendation was abolition of this body. Instead, after a consultation
process conducted by the Department of
the Environment this body has been reconstituted and renamed as
the Architects
Registration Board. It now operates under the Architects
Act 1997.

The statutory Register

The originating Act was the Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931. Its long title was "An
Act to provide for the Registration of Architects and for purposes connected
therewith". It stated that the Council's duty was to set up and maintain a
register, referred to in the Act as "the Register of Architects".
The Act required the Council to cause to be entered in the Register the name
and address of every person entitled to be registered under the Act, and
annually to publish and offer for ale copies of the Register, setting forth the
names of the registered persons in alphabetical order according to their surnames,
with their regular business address.

Qualification

For ascertaining whether a
person who claimed to be entitled to be registered was duly qualified, the Act
required the Council to appoint annually a Board of
Architectural Education referred to in the Act as "the
Board", and a committee referred to in the Act as "the Admissions
Committee".

The constitution of the Board
was prescribed by the Second Schedule to the Act. By the Act two duties were
ascribed to the Board, namely, to hold examinations in architecture in
accordance with the Act, and to make recommendations to the Council in two
respects, namely:

·
the recognition
of any examinations in architecture the passing of which ought, in the opinion
of the Board, to qualify persons for registration under the Act; and

·
the holding of
any examination in architecture which ought, in the opinion of the Board, to be
passed by applicants for registration under the Act.

The constitution of the
Admissions Committee was prescribed in the Third Schedule to the Act. The duty
ascribed by the Act to the Admissions Committee was to consider every
application for registration under the Act and to report thereon to the Council
as to whether the applicant was, in the opinion of the Committee, qualified for
registration.

Before a person who had duly
applied to the Council could become entitled to be registered, the Act required
the Council to be satisfied on a report of the Admission Committee that the
applicant was qualified in one of four respects, namely:

·
membership of the
Royal
Academy or of the Royal Scottish Academy;
or

·
practising as an architect
in the United Kingdom
at the commencement of the Act; or

·
having passed any
examination in architecture which was for the time being recognised by the
Council; or

·
possessing
"the prescribed qualifications".

The Council was required to
make regulations in respect of anything which by the Act was to be prescribed,
but no regulations of the Council were to be of any force or validity without
the prior approval of the Privy Council.

Among other things, the the
1996 Act abolished the statutory Board of
Architectural Education and the Admissions Committee (subsection
118(2)).

Restrictions on use of
"architect"

The long title
of the originating Act of 1931 was "An Act to provide for the Registration
of architects and for purposes connected therewith". By subsection 3(3) of
this Act the register which the Council was required to set up, maintain and
publish annually was to be called the Register of Registered Architects; and
under section 10 of the originating Act persons who were entitled to apply for
registration could thereby claim "to take and use the name of 'Registered
Architect'" as a statutory right, with effect from 1932.

By subsection 3(3) of the
Architects Registration Act, 1938 the name of this statutory register was
changed to the Register of Architects,
and this continues under the Architects Act 1997.

The change of name was made
in connection with the introduction of statutory restrictions on the use of the
vernacular word "architect", which were to apply to all persons,
including fully qualified practising members of the Royal
Institute of British Architects (RIBA) or other chartered bodies
of architects, or societies or associations. This innovation was imposed under
threat of penalty on prosecution
in the Magistrates Courts
for infringement.

Professional conduct

The Discipline Committee
which was constituted under the 1931 Act was abolished under subsection 118(2)
of the 1996 Act. Instead there is a Professional Conduct Committee which
operates under Part III of the 1997 Act.

Under an Act passed by the UK
Parliament in 1931, there was established an Architects' Registration
Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK), referred to in the Act as
&quotthe Council". The constitution of the Council was prescribed by
the First Schedule to the Act. The Act made the Council a body corporate by the
name Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom. It was
habitually referred to colloquially by the acronym ARCUK.

“Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom”
is strongly related to:

Board of
Architectural Education Register
of Architects Warne Report Architects
Act 1997 Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Architects
Registration Board Long title Magistrates
Courts Reform of
Architects Registration Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom Department of the
Environment Royal Scottish Academy
Privy
council Royal
Institute of British Architects Acronym and initialism
Sentence
(law) Prosecutor Royal Academy
Surname
Architect
Parliament of the
United Kingdom United Kingdom

~~

end of article 9#

[link to VisWiki
for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

10.-Board of Architectural
Education

The Board of Architectural
Education is no longer appointed. It had been a statutory body in the United
Kingdom constituted under section 5 of the Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931.

The Act was citable with two
amending Acts as the Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938. Further amendments and
changes enacted by the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996
included abolition of the statutory Board of Achitectural Education.

Nomination and appointment to
the Board

Subsection 5(1) of the 1931
Act had required the Board of Architecturaql Education to be appointed annually
by the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK) ("the
Council"). The Board was to be constituted in accordance with the Second
Schedule of the Act. This included:

·
one person
nominated by the Liverpool School of
Architecture and the nine other Schools
of Architecture named in the Schedule;

·
four persons
nominated jointly by the Department of Architecture in the University
of Cambridge and the eight other Schools of Architecture named
in the Schedule;

·
the Director of
Education of the School of Architecture of the Architectural
Association in London;

·
a total of 14
persons nominated by various other educational bodies, and

·
24 registered
persons nominated by the Council.

The Board's duty

Subsection 5(2) of the 1931
Act had made it the duty of the Board (of Architectural Education) to recommend
to the Council:

·
the recognition
of any examinations in architecture the passing of which ought, in the opinion
of the Board (of Architectural Education), to qualify persons for registration
in the Register of Registered Architects, and

·
the holding of
any examinations in architecture which ought, in the opinion of the Board (of
Architectural Education), to be passed by applicants for registration.

Statutory nomenclature

The amendments to the Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 which were made by the Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 included the abolition of the
statutory Board of Architectural Education and renaming the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom as the Architects
Registration Board. The Board of Architectural Education is not
mentioned in the Architects Act 1997,
which consolidated and replaced the Acts of 1931 to 1938, as amended by the Act
of 1996.

By section 26, "the
Board" in the Architects Act 1997 was henceforth to mean the registration
body renamed as the Architects
Registration Board (ARB), which had previously been named the
Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK).

The Board of Architectural
Education is no longer appointed. It had been a statutory body in the United Kingdom
constituted under section 5 of the Architects (Registration) Act, 1931.

“Board of
Architectural Education” is strongly related to:

Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Architects
Registration Board Schools
of Architecture, Architects (Registration) Act, 1931 Architects
Act 1997 Architects
Registration in the United Kingdom Architectural
Association School of Architecture University of Liverpool
University
of Cambridge London United Kingdom

~~

end of article 10#

[link to VisWiki
for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

11.-Schools of
Architecture, Architects (Registration) Act, 1931

For the purposes of the statutory
Board of
Architectural Education, the Schools of Architecture were
those which were listed in the Second Schedule to the United
Kingdom Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931. The 1931 Act had required the Board of
Architectural Education to be appointed annually by the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK) ("the
Council"). The Board was to be constituted in accordance with the Second
Schedule to the Act. This included a list of twenty Schools, from the Liverpool
School of Architecture to the School
of Architecture
of the Architectural
Association London.

Changes first enacted as Part
III of the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 included
abolition of the statutory Board of Architectural Education, and renaming the
Architects' Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK) with the name it
now has: the Architects
Registration Board (ARB). From 1997 this body has been governed
by the Architects Act 1997, which makes no mention of the Schools of
Architecture.

The Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 had been passed
on 24 July 1996. Its long title shows that it was a piece of departmental
omnibus legislation:

An
Act to make provision for grants and other assistance for housing purposes and
about action in relation to unfit housing; to amend the law relating to
construction contracts and architects; to provide grants and other assistance
for regeneration and development and in connection with clearance areas; to
amend the provisions relating to home energy efficiency schemes; to make provision
in connection with the dissolution of urban corporations, housing action trusts
and the Commission for New Towns; and for connected purposes.

Part III of the Act relating
to architects was repealed and reenacted as part of the Architects
Act 1997, which was passed on 19 March 1997 under the
Parliamentary rules for consolidating Acts.

For the purposes of the
statutory Board of Architectural Education, the Schools of Architecture
were those which were listed in the Second Schedule to the United Kingdom
Architects (Registration) Act, 1931. The 1931 Act had required the Board of
Architectural Education to be appointed annually by the Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom (ARCUK)("the Council").

“Schools of Architecture, Architects (Registration) Act,
1931” is strongly related to:

Housing
Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 Board of
Architectural Education Architects Act 1997
Architects'
Registration Council of the United Kingdom Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Architects
Registration Board Architectural
Association School of Architecture University of Liverpool
Architecture
London
United
Kingdom

~~

end of article 11#

[link to VisWiki
for hyperlinks shown in the article below]

12.-Architectural
education in the United
Kingdom (19c-20c)

After nearly a century of
endeavour and negotiation which had been led by the Royal
Institute of British Architects, a statutory Board of
Architectural Education was formed under the Architects
(Registration) Act, 1931. For the purposes of constituting the
Board of Architectural Education the Act included a list of Schools
of Architecture in the United Kingdom. The statutory Board
was abolished in the 1990s, and when the Architects Act 1997
repealed the 1931 Act the statutory list of Schools of Architecture went with
it.

The 1931 Act had come to be
passed at the end of a century of development in educational provision and in
the method of qualifying by examination. The 1997 Act was passed in the period
after the United Kingdom
had become one of the Member States of the European Economic
Community, later named the European Union,
an organization which, among other things, has required Member States to remove
obstacles to the freedom of movement and establishment in respect of
professional practice, employment, trade and business within the territories of
the Union.

The method of qualifying by
passing an examination which the RIBA had recognized as allowing exemption
continued in the period when the 1931 Act was in force, and remained available
under the later legislation.

By a further development,
from 2007 a Chartered Member of the RIBA may apply for the registration of a
Chartered Practice in respect of a business providing architectural services
and comprising one or more Chartered Members meeting criteria for, and
operating in accordance with, a prescribed scheme.

19c Background

It will be recalled that the
background to the developments in education and the method of attaining
professional qualification had been the unprecedented development of industrial
and commercial activity in the United
Kingdom and other countries in the course of
the nineteenth century. This, and the impact on the working and living
conditions of the populations affected, had been making demands for the
building of factories, warehouses, offices, educational establishments,
hospitals, housing, places of recreation and entertainment and places for
religious and other purposes. With that came demands upon architectural
practitioners for designs for buildings of all kinds, qualities and standards,
for the supervision of the construction of works, and in some cases for making
planning schemes for area development or redevelopment, of greater or lesser
extent; sometimes collaborating with other branches of the construction
professions, notably surveyors, civil
engineers and, as the period progressed, structural
engineers, and mechanical and electrical engineers. The demand
for architectural services, in respect of both traditional and newer materials
and techniques, was coming from public bodies, commercial and industrial
enterprises, private owners or investors, philanthropists, benefactors and
others.

Institutional arrangements :
RIBA

As a result, institutional
arrangements for architectural education became increasingly systematic, in
respect of examinations for formal qualifications, and making qualifications a
condition for granting some other form of distinguishing style or title (such
as Fellow, Associate or Licentiate of a professional body), or for the right or
expectation to be able to practise as an architect, on one's
own account or as a partner or as an assistant in another's office.

A leading participant in the
development of those institutional arrangements was the society which had been
formed in London
in the 1830s and had petitioned for, and in 1837 had been granted, a charter of
incorporation. This society was later granted the name Royal Institute of
British Architects, and is for convenience referred to as the RIBA.

Sources

The historian will find some
source material in the Archive which the RIBA has made accessible at the Victoria and Albert
Museum, and in books, periodicals and other publications of the
period which have been deposited and retained in the British Architectural
Library (of the RIBA).

Another contemporaneous
source of information, upon which the following is largely based, is provided
by two editions of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, the eleventh
of 1910 and the fourteenth of 1929. These editions contain articles which
conveniently indicate how examination, as a
method of gaining recognition for the attainment of the specialist knowledge
and skill required of a professional practitioner, had grown and had been
thought of in the period leading up to the passing of the 1931 Act.

Qualifying examinations

The index of the eleventh
edition offers users very little more about architectural education than a few
words in an article on Examinations generally, which was attributed in part to
Paul George Konody, Art Critic of The Observer
and the Daily Mail,
formerly Editor of The Artist,
author of the Art of Walter Crane; Velázquez,
Life and Work; etc, and in part to Arthur Watson,
Secretary in the Academic Department of the University of London.
It began with the paragraph:

The
term 'examination' (i.e., inspecting, weighing and testing; from Latin examen, the tongue of a balance) is used [in
the article which followed] to denote a systematic test of knowledge, and of
either special or general capacity or fitness, carried out under the authority
of some public body.

There followed eight sections
beginning with History and ending with a critical appraisal headed The
Object and Efficiency of Examinations, and their Indirect Effects. The
second section was on Professional Examinations, followed by others on
School-leaving Examinations, mentioning the "accrediting" system in
the United States started by the University of Michigan in 1871; Methods of
Examination: Written, Oral, Thesis and Practical; Competitive Examinations; The
Organization and Conduct of Examinations; and Marking, Classification and
Errors of Detail.

Perspective

The section on History began
as follows:

The
oldest known system of examinations in history is that used by China for the
selection of officers for the public service (c.1115 B.C.), and the periodic
tests which they undergo after entry (c.2200). The abolition of this system was
announced in 1906, and, as a partial substitute, it was decided to hold an
annual examination in Peking of Chinese
educated abroad.

The
majority of examinations in western countries are derived from the university
examinations of the middle ages. The first universities of Europe
consisted of corporations of teachers and of students analogous to the trade
gilds and merchant gilds of the time. In the trade gilds there were
apprentices, companions and masters. No one was admitted to mastership until he
had served his apprenticeship, nor, as a rule, until he had shown that he could
accomplish a piece of work to the satisfaction of the gild.

The
object of the universities was to teach; and to the three classes established
by the gild correspond roughly to the scholar, the bachelor or pupil-teacher,
and the master or doctor (two terms at first equivalent) who, having first
served his apprenticeship and passed a definite technical test, had received
permission to teach...

After a survey of the
development of examination practice in the universities of western Europe up to
the early 20c., the next section of professional examinations began with the
remark "University examinations for degrees having ceased to be used as
technical tests of teaching capacity, new examinations have been devised for
this purpose". For examinations in Medicine, the article referred the
reader to the article on Medical Education, and this section concluded with a
single paragraph headed Other Professions, stating that a system of
professional examinations carried on by other professional bodies, in some
cases with legal sanction, was developed in England during the nineteenth
century; and, in a list of subjects described as "the most important"
mentioned "architecture (Royal Institute of British Architects )",
along with: accountancy, actuarial work,
music, pharmacy,
plumbing,
surveying,
veterinary medicine,
technical subjects, eg cotton-spinning, dyeing, motor
manufacturing, commercial subjects, shorthand and engineering
(civil, mechanical and electrical).

As at 1929

Publication of the fourteenth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica in 1929 happened shortly before the
Board of Architectural Education was constituted under the Act of 1931. In it
there was an article three pages long on Architectural Education, attributed to
Lionel Bailey Budden,
MA, ARIBA, Associate Professor of Architecture in the University
of Liverpool. The opening sentence was:

Underlying
the system of architectural education at present established in most Western
countries is the assumption that architecture is one of the fine arts, and that
the prime object of the training which the architect should receive is to equip
him as a creative artist in building.

That could be compared with
the words of the charter which had been granted to the RIBA in 1837, in which
the purpose of the Institute was described as:

...
for the general advancement of Civil Architecture, and for promoting and
facilitating the acquirement of the knowledge of the various arts and sciences
connected therewith; it being an art esteemed and encouraged in all enlightened
nations, as tending greatly to promote the domestic convenience of citizens,
and the public improvement and embellishment of towns and cities...

When the present supplemental
charter was granted in 1971, part of the first charter was revoked but the
words quoted were retained.

In the meantime Professor
Budden's article of 1929 included the following:

...
it is generally agreed that the study of architecture should be preceded by a liberal
education. As one of the fine arts, historically associated with
the arts of painting and sculpture,
and as the background of civilized society, it demands both for its practice
and its appreciation some measure of general culture. The tendency today [1929] is, therefore, for schools of architecture
in Europe, the British Empire
and America to
require from candidates for admission evidence of a broad non-technical
education... Today architectural education in all countries is in the hands of
practising teachers. Direct connection between the instruction given in the
school and the experience of actual practice is thereby assured ...

The article then considered: Italy,
France,
Great
Britain and Dominions, Other
European Countries, United States,
and Mexico.
It mentioned that the largest school of architecture in England was that of the Architectural
Association (London) and the next
that of Liverpool
University, and explained
the part played by the RIBA:

From
its foundation in 1835 the Royal Institute
of British Architects has
been the supreme controlling authority of the profession throughout the empire.
At no time, however, has the RIBA itself undertaken the teaching of
architecture. But by setting up, in the latter half of the last century [19c.],
a centralized system of examinations when no professional tests existed in the
country, it performed a notable service in raising the general level of
professional knowledge. Through its board of architectural education it has now
delegated to certain approved schools the task of qualifying candidates for
admission to the institute, only maintaining its own centralized examinations
for students not seeking entry through scholastic channels.

Schools of architecture which
were then recognized for exemption from the RIBA final examination (except in
the subject of "Professional Practice") were named as:

Robert
Gordon's Colleges,
Aberdeen; Edinburgh College of
Art; Royal
Technical College, Glasgow; University of Liverpool;
Architectural Association, London; University of London;
University of
Manchester; McGill University,
Montreal;
and the University of Sydney.

Schools in certain
institutions which were then recognized for exemption from the RIBA
intermediate examination were named as:

School
of Art, Birmingham; Royal West of England
Academy, Bristol; University of
Cambridge; Technical College, Cardiff; Leeds College
of Arts; Leicester College of Arts and Crafts; Northern
Polytechnic, London; Armstrong College,
Newcastle-on-Tyne;
University of
Sheffield; Municipal School of Arts and Crafts, Southend-on-Sea;
University of Toronto;
and Sir J. J. School of
Art, Bombay.

It was mentioned that in both
classes the maintenance of the requisite standard was assured by the periodic
inspection of the visiting board, appointed by the RIBA board of architectural
education, which reported to the institute on the work of the various schools
granted or applying for exemption.

The system continued after
the statutory Board of Architectural Education had been constituted, in
connection with the provision in the Architects (Registration) Act, 1931 making
it the duty of the Board to recommend "the recognition of any examinations
in architecture the passing of which ought, in the opinion of the Board, to
qualify persons for registration" under the Act (subsection 5(2)(a)).

Consonant with Professor
Budden's remarks at that time, the objects of the RIBA are declared in its
charter to be:

The
advancement of architecture and the promotion of the acquirement of the
knowledge of the Arts and Sciences
connected therewith;

and the next paragraph in the
charter expresses the power of the RIBA to grant diplomas, certificates
or other forms of recognition.

Later developments

The former division of the
membership of the RIBA into the two classes of Fellows and Associates ceased
under the supplemental charter and byelaws of 1971, but the method of
qualifying by passing an examination which the RIBA has recognized as allowing
exemption remains available. To be eligible for election to the now undivided
class of Chartered Members a candidate is still required to have undertaken
courses of study and passed examinations which have been prescribed or
recognized by the Council, or to be able to demonstrate to the satisfaction of
the Council having had a proper training in architecture.

As the field in which
architecture is practised has continued to change, so has the RIBA Chartered
Membership been keeping pace. In recent years a Byelaw was introduced to
the effect that practising members are responsible for undertaking continuing
professional development, defined in the Byelaws as:

The
systematic improvement and broadening of knowledge and skill and the
development of personal qualities necessary for the execution of professional
and technical duties in the course of a Chartered Member's working life.

A further and more recent
development has been the passing of a Byelaw allowing a Chartered Member to
apply for the registration of a Chartered Practice, defined in the Byelaws as:

a
formally-established business providing architectural services and comprising
one or more Chartered Members which meets criteria for, and operates in
accordance with, a scheme prescribed by the Council, or a board to which the
Council has devolved responsibility.

Further information

For further information about
the course of events before the passing of the 1931 Act and up to the present
day, see other articles listed on the Wikipedia Category page Architects
Registration in the United
Kingdom.

“Architectural education in the United Kingdom (19c-20c)” is
strongly related to:

Surveying University of London
Lionel
Bailey Budden Schools
of Architecture, Architects (Registration) Act, 1931 Royal
College of Science and Technology Board of
Architectural Education Architects Act 1997
Arthur
C. Watson Architects
(Registration) Acts, 1931 to 1938 Leeds College of
Art and Design Sir J. J. School of Art
Liberal
education Observer Royal
West of England Academy Former
colleges of the University of Durham University of North
London Architectural
Association School of Architecture Birmingham School of Art
Robert
Gordon's College Newcastle-on-Tyne Walter Crane
Edinburgh
College of Art Bylaw Examination
Certificate
Shorthand
The arts
Dyeing
Royal
Institute of British Architects Plumbing Structural
engineering Actuary Diego
Velázquez Diploma Accountancy
Southend-on-Sea
University
of Liverpool University of Sheffield
European
Community Victoria and Albert
Museum

~~

end of article 12##